The rich traditions of eremitism in ancient India established several categories of hermits common to Hindus, Jains, and early Buddhists. This history is useful in considering the forms of eremitism that can be pursued in modern society.
The trajectory of eremitism in ancient India can be charted in its highlights. The RigVeda is the expression of Brahmin culture, of the dominant religious and economic class. The era of the Upanishads represents the shift from Brahmin deity worship and ritual to Vedantic enlightment and focus on consciousness. Eremetism becomes a strong option for spiritual expression during this latter period. Historically, however, the shift is muddled and does not follow a straight line.
Even the original eremitic group of ancient India, the Kesin, are radically distinct in appearance and decorum from the staid and dominant Brahmin culture. The Kesin are known only from one hymn recorded in the RigVega (10, 136). The passage about the Kesin describes them as having “long, loose locks” and as being “all sky to look upon” (that is, naked, like the later Gymnosophist). The Kesin are considered muni or “inspired,” with the term muni later referring generally to holy men or saints. The Kesin worshipped the deity Agni, the god of fire. Their appearance alone suffiesto demonstrate the germ of rebellion aginst Brahminism.
Sramanas pursue the same asceticism as the ascetics of the sixth and fifth century groupings, but systemitize their meditative and yogic practices, influencing Buddhism and Jain. Sramanas more conspicuously separate themselves from the Brahmin class. This separation becomes a social necessity, reflective of the social break that historical eremites everywhere pursue.
Sanyasi are renouncers who affirm the life of detachment in order to pursue a solitary life. Their place in the fourth asrama as forest-dweller is a later formality. Many figures from kings to householders were reputed to follow ascetic practices to varying degrees, while remaining in the world. The evolution of the sanyasi from practitioner to renouncer completes a cycle.
With the history of eremitism, the evolution of presentation in Hindu (and other) India is useful in understanding that eremitism evolves from practice and belief as well as personality and psychology. The modern solitary, with only a handful of acquaintances or living in the city and not the forest, may have more compelling reasons for renouncing the world than merely personal preference. It is difficult to conjure an ancient renouncer’s motive, especially since the entire society was at least sympathetic to his values if not outright supportive of renouncing. The spiritual and moral effort of the hermit could be more readily accepted in those special eras of history when the whole of society admired the spirituality if not the practice.